Upcycling and recycling of spent battery waste for a sustainable future: Progress and perspectives

The urgency of addressing the environmental and resource challenges posed by spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has led to significant advancements in recycling and upcycling methodologies. This work aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the progress made for LIB recycling and upcycling, offering perspectives for achieving a circular economy in battery technology. The review examines the latest innovations in LIB material recovery, focusing on both conventional recycling techniques and emerging upcycling strategies. It explores the motivation and importance of recycling spent LIBs, showing the critical need for sustainable solutions. A comprehensive overview of LIB recycling methodologies is provided, including pretreatment, preprocessing, pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, bioleaching, direct recovery processes, electrochemical processes, and deep eutectic solvents. Empha…